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Highlights from the Collection: Egypt
The Oriental Institute Museum houses nearly 30,000 Egyptian artifacts that were acquired through a combination of purchases and archaeological excavations. James Henry Breasted, who founded the Oriental Institute in 1919, purchased the core of the collection in Egypt between 1894 and 1935. During the same years, a broad range of artifacts was donated by the Egypt Exploration Fund (now Society) and the British School of Archaeology in Egypt. These gifts were an acknowledgment of the Oriental Institute's financial sponsorship of the work of British archaeologists and came from their excavations. In addition, the Oriental Institute's own excavations from 1926-1932 at Medinet Habu added extensive New Kingdom and later materials to the growing collection. Today, the Oriental Institute Museum's Egyptian collection is one of the largest and most complete in the United States. It is particularly strong in artifacts that illustrate aspects of ancient Egyptian daily life, religion, and funerary practices.
Funerary Stela
Found in the Ramesseum at Thebes, this painted funerary stela was erected to commemorate the lady Djed-Khonsu-es-ankh. The deceased woman, in a diaphanous white gown, wears a cone of perfumed beeswax and a water lily on her head. She pours a libation over a table of food offerings and raises her hand to greet the seated god Re-Harakhty, a form of the ancient Egyptian sun god. The hieroglyphic signs offer a prayer asking the gods to supply food and drink for the survival of her spirit in the netherworld.
The inscription, a standard offering formula, reads:
An offering which the King gives to Re-Harakhty, the Great God, Lord of Heaven, that he may give invocation-offerings consisting of offerings and food to the Osiris, Lady of the House, the noblewoman, Djed-Khonsu-es-ankh, deceased, daughter of the priest of Amun-Ra, King of the Gods, Master of the Secrets of the Garments of the Gods, Ser-Djehuty.
Relief from the Tomb of Mentuemhat
The ancient Egyptians decorated the walls of their tombs with elaborate scenes showing the type of life they wished to live after death. This relief fragment comes from the tomb of Mentuemhat, a governor of Thebes. One of the most powerful men of his time, Mentuemhat was able to employ the best artists to carve and paint scenes of abundance that would satisfy his every need in the afterlife.
In the relief above, oarsmen paddle small boats made of papyrus bundles through waters teeming with fish. The first boat contains two oarsmen and a third figure, perhaps identified as an overseer by his staff (?) and gesture, sitting between wicker baskets piled high with fruit.
Reconstructed Predynastic Burial
This body, in a curled position and wrapped in reeds, was buried in a pit in the Egyptian desert more than 5000 years ago. After interment the tomb was heaped high with sand, which was kept in place by piling stones around it. The hot, dry sand, which completely enveloped the body, dehydrated and preserved it.
Around the body were grouped clay jars containing food and drink and a slate palette with grinding stone, used to pulverize mineral pigments for cosmetics. All were intended for use in the next life.
This "mummy," created by naturally occurring environmental conditions, predates Egyptian embalming practices of the pharaonic period by hundreds of years.
Predynastic Jar
Most striking of the painted designs on this pot are the boats, which carry banks of oars, cabins or shrines, and standards. Other decorations include a large bird, probably an ostrich, and images evocative of the hills and water of Upper Egypt, where this vessel was made. Strings probably were passed through the four pierced beak-shaped lugs near the rim and used to tie a lid securely in place. Handmade pots with painted decorations like these were characteristic of the Gerzean period.
Model of a Butcher Shop
A butcher's shop, like the one represented by this model, was part of many large estates in ancient Egypt. On the ground level floor, a trussed bovine is being slaughtered while workmen go about their related tasks. A stairway at the right side of the shop leads to the second floor where two figures stand, cleavers raised, perhaps to receive the meat for carving. Painted wooden models of daily- life activities were commonly placed in Middle Kingdom tombs to serve the deceased in the next life.
Book of the Dead
The Book of the Dead was a collection of spells, hymns, and prayers intended to secure for the deceased safe passage to and sojourn in the other world. The sections of papyrus on display to the left and right are from one of these long scrolls, which was cut into fifteen sections in modern times.
The illustration to the left shows the judgement of the soul before Osiris, the god of the dead, who determines the deceased's worthiness to enter the next life by assessing his earthly deeds. The heart of Yartiuerow (the deceased) is being weighed in the balance against the feather of the goddess Maat, representing truth and justice. The jackal-god Anubis tips the balance in Yartiuerow's favor while the falcon-headed god Horus looks on and the ibis-headed Thoth, the secretary of the gods, records the favorable verdict. Yartiuerow himself stands on the right, his hands raised in jubilation, accompanied by the goddess Maat. Before him is a monster-part hippopotamus, part crocodile, and part lion- which would have annihilated him had the judgement been unfavorable.
The title of the Book of the Dead and its method of use are stated in the horizontal line at the top of the section exhibited to the right: "Beginning of the spells for going forth by day which raise the glorious ones (i.e., the dead) in the cemetery. To be said on the day of burial of entering in after going forth, by Osiris Yartiuerow, deceased." The vignette below shows part of the funeral procession. The sledge bearing the coffin is drawn by oxen. Two smaller sledges, each drawn by a man, follow. The one behind the coffcin bears the canopic box containing the four jars in which the viscera were preserved. On its lid lies a figure of the mortuary god Anubis in jackal form.
Bed
The curved side rails of this bed are lashed with leather thongs (restored) to the end rails and the feet, which are carved in the shape of bulls' legs. Leather strips were laced through rectangular holes in the inner sides and bottoms of the rails to provide a woven or lattice-work base to support the sleeper. (Remnants of the original leather strips are still visible; the wooden slats are modern). A wooden bed like this one would have belonged only to a member of the wealthy class.
Mud Brick Stamped with Cartouche of Ramses II
Although the ancient Egyptians are best known for their stone monuments, they also used mud bricks extensively for building. This brick, which bears the cartouche of Ramses II, was found within the walls of his great mortuary temple, the Ramesseum, along with many reused bricks stamped with the names of his predecessors.
The bricks were made from river mud and straw, shaped in wooden molds and left to dry in the sun; the cartouche or other inscription was stamped on the brick while it was still damp and soft.
The ancient Egyptian word for brick was "debet," a word that has come into our modern vocabulary through the Spanish as "adobe," meaning sun-dried brick.
Statue of the God Horus
This statue represents the falcon god Horus, one of the most important ancient Egyptian gods. The beak and headdress have been restored to suggest the originals, which were almost certainly made of gold. A narrow passage from the base of the statue to the head may have been used for the insertion of cords to manipulate the original beak and headdress. In that way the statue could have functioned as an oracle-a medium through which the god made known his knowledge and purpose.
Trial Piece
It is uncertain whether this small relief is a student's practice piece or the unfinished work of a trained sculptor. Although the figure wears no royal insignia, it is probably the Pharaoh Akhenaten, depicted in the exaggerated style of the Early Period of Amarna art. The king's strange facial features-which served as a model for all human representations during his reign-include narrow slanting eyes, long nose, hollow cheeks, thick lips, and hanging chin. The sculptor has added incised lines to indicate the angle of the jaw and the crease that extends downward from the edge of the nose. Akhenaten wears a short 'Nubian' or military-style wig; the detailing of the curls has been left uncarved.
Bust of a Man
This idealized, youthful 'portrait' of an unidentified private individual is an outstanding example of Middle Kingdom sculpture. It was commissioned by a man who could afford to hire the best of sculptors to fashion in stone the likeness he would bear for all eternity. The narrow almond-shaped eyes, full face, and large ears are typical of works of this period, as are the heavy rippled wig with pointed lappets and the wrap-around garment, the top of which is visible on the left side of the chest.
Potter
Ny-kau-Inpu, a cemetery official who was probably buried in a mastaba in the Old Kingdom cemetery at Giza, included in his tomb a series of statuettes of his family and household servants. By so doing, he hoped to take with him into the afterlife those things that were important to him during his lifetime. This tiny figure of a potter forming a vessel upon a potter's wheel was one of those statuettes, which as a group seem to represent the staff of a typical properous estate owner in Old Kingdom Egypt.
Colossal Statue of Tutankhamun
Oriental Institute archaeologists working at Thebes excavated this statue of King Tutankhamun. It had been usurped by succeeding kings and now bears the name of Horemheb.
Tutankhamun wears the double crown and the royal nemes headcloth of the pharaohs; a protective cobra goddess (uraeus serpent) rears above his forehead. In his hands the king grasps scroll-like objects thought to be containers for the documents by which the gods affirmed the monarch's right to divine rule. The sword at his waist has a falcon's head, symbol of the god Horus, who was believed to be manifested by the living pharaoh. The small feet at the king's left side were part of a statue of his wife, Ankhesenpaamun, whose figure was more nearly life-sized.
The facial features of this statue strongly resemble other representations of Tutankhamun from his famous tomb, which was discovered relatively intact in the Valley of the Kings.
Mummy Mask
Mummy masks were a traditional part of the funerary equipment with which ancient Egyptians supplied their burials for the life they believed would continue after death. This example is a stylized portrait of the deceased, evidently a woman. It originally covered the head and shoulders of her mummified body.
The medium is cartonnage, a kind of ancient Egyptian papier- mache made from used linen and papyrus. The cartonnage was coated with gesso before the paint and gilding were applied.
The deceased is shown wearing a necklace at the throat with a heart amulet as a pendant. Below is a broad collar necklace fringed with drop pendants.
A representation of funerary shrines with double doors appears on each shoulder. The god Osiris sits on top of each shrine. These divine figures were intended to represent the deceased after death, for it was believed that all were reborn as Osiris. The feather which the god holds is an allusion to the deceased successfully being reborn after passing a judgement before the tribunal of the gods.
Coffin of Ipi-Ha-Ishutef
A man named Ipi-ha-ishutef commissioned this coffin and had it decorated with inscriptions and pictures designed to assist him in the afterlife.
The interior of the lid contains spells from the Pyramid Texts to protect the deceased from harm and to facilitate his passage to the netherworld. These texts had been carved on the walls and corridors of royal tombs beginning toward the end of the Old Kingdom (ca. 2755-2213 B.C.). Later, as here, they came to be used by non-royal persons as well and are then known as Coffin Texts.
The eyes painted at the head end of the coffin were positioned opposite the eyes of the deceased as he lay within on his left side. These 'Eyes of Horus' provided him with a magical means of looking out.
Inside the coffin, behind the eyes, is a painted doorway through which the soul of the deceased might pass to visit the outer world. The remainder of the coffin's interior bears representations of items that the deceased had used on earth and would need in the afterlife, such as food, drink, clothing, and weapons, as well as royal insignia, resting mostly on low stands.
This coffin was excavated near the pyramid of King Teti at Saqqara. Ipi-ha-ishutef's title was "Scribe and Overseer of the expedition [or army]."
Butcher Slaughtering a Calf
This statuette of a butcher is one of a group of sculptures placed in the tomb of an ancient Egyptian official so that he might take with him into the afterlife things that had been important to him during his lifetime. The group, which seems to represent the household and staff of a typical prosperous estate owner in Old Kingdom Egypt, included representations of the owner Ny-kau-Inpu and his family, two butchers, men and women processing grain and making bread, four musicians, a metalworker with a blowpipe, a potter, and even two children playing leapfrog.
The Mummy and Coffin of Meresamun
The mummy and coffin of Meresamun are excellent examples of the skill of the ancient embalmer and coffin maker of Dynasty 22, about the year 950 B.C. The mummy and coffin were purchased in Egypt by James Henry Breasted, the founder of the Oriental Institute, in 1920. Where Meresamun lived and died is unknown, although the style of the coffin suggests that she was originally from the Theban (modern Luxor) area.
Meresamun's form-fitting sheath-like coffin is made of cartonnage, a type of papiér-mâché, composed of layers of fabric, glue and plaster. It is 63 inches (1.6m) long. Cartonnage coffins were formed over a temporary inner core made of mud and straw. After the coffin shell was completed, the wrapped mummy was inserted into the case through the back, and the back seam was then laced up. The separate footboard was laced on, the entire case covered with another layer of thin white plaster and then painted. The colored areas of the coffin were painted with a final layer of protective varnish which has turned slightly yellow with age.
This type of mummy case was normally part of a more complex set of coffins. It would probably have been placed within a wooden anthropoid (human-shaped) coffin, or even in a series of two or three nested coffins, all of which would have been painted with religious scenes.
The Decoration of the Coffin
The coffin is painted with scenes which allude to life after death. They were intended to ensure Meresamun's successful rebirth. The head of the coffin is decorated with a headband of flower petals with wings of a protective vulture by each cheek, and a small vulture head on the forehead. This type of headgear is worn by queens, priestesses and goddesses. Over the chest are layers of wide floral necklaces. Not only were flowers beautiful and sweet smelling, but they were considered to symbolize regeneration.
Below the floral collars, right and left, are two pairs of gods who were entrusted with the protection of the internal organs that were removed during the mummification process. These gods also appear on the lids of canopic jars, the containers in which the embalmed viscera were stored. Here the gods appear as wrapped mummies. To the right are the hawk-headed god, Quebehsenuef, who guarded the intestines, and the jackal-headed Duamutef, who guarded the stomach. To the left is the human-form Imseti, who guarded the liver, and the ape-headed Hapy, who guarded the lungs.
Between and slightly below these gods is a large representation of the falcon god Horus (or, perhaps, Re), with the sun's disk on his head, clasping a round shen ("eternity") sign in each talon. A feather fan, a symbol of divinity emerges from each shen sign. The solar Horus, as a symbol of the eternally reborn sun, signified rebirth.
On either side of the central band on the leg area of the coffin are wedjat eyes, also called the "Eye of Horus," which symbolized health and regeneration. Behind the eyes are winged serpents with sun disks on their heads. They symbolized protection. The serpent to the right hovers above the hieroglyphs for eternity, life and dominion. Below the serpents are rams which functioned on several different levels. They may be a pun for the word "soul" (both the word "soul" and "ram" sounded the same in the ancient Egyptian language). The ram may also be the god Khnum, one of the primary creator gods, or Banebdjed, who was associated with the soul of Osiris, one of the deities of the Afterlife.
Larger scale hieroglyphs cover the lower leg area. To the far right is the symbol for the west, the area of the setting-or dying-sun, which was associated with the land of the deceased. Between that sign and the central band of hieroglyphs is the djed pillar, which symbolized the backbone of the god Osiris, the main deity of the Afterlife. The djed indicates the deceased's association with Osiris in the Afterlife.
On the opposite side of the central band of hieroglyphs is the tiet (so-called "Isis knot"), a symbol with broad meaning, generally associated with health and well-being. To the left of the tiet is the symbol for the east, the realm of the reborn sun, hence the land of the living. It is paired with the djed, the symbol of the god Osiris, the husband/brother of Isis, to create a balanced composition.
Two images of the jackal god Wepwawet, protector of the necropolis, decorate the upper surface of the feet. The footboard of the coffin is decorated with a leaping bull, a symbol of fertility.
The inscription down the front of the coffin is a prayer which calls upon gods to give Meresamun offerings in the Afterlife: "A gift which the king gives to Re-Horakhty-Atum, Lord of the Two Lands and Heliopolis [and to] Ptah-Sokar-Osiris, Lord of Shechet, and Wennefer (a form of Osiris), Lord of the Sacred Land (ie: the Necropolis), the Great God, Lord of Heaven that he [the king] may give funerary offerings to the Osiris, the Singer in the Interior of the Temple of Amun, Meresamun, the One Beneficial to Amun, justified."
Who was Meresamun?
Both the inscription and the style of coffin indicate that it was made for a woman named Meresamun ("Amun Loves Her"). According to the inscription, she held the title "Singer in the Interior of the Temple of Amun." Women who held this title were the elite in a complex bureaucracy of many other women who held the title "Singer in the Temple of Amun." We assume that these other women performed music during certain temple rituals on a part-time basis. In contrast, many of the women like Meresamun, who held the more exalted title "Singer in the Interior of the Temple," were known to come from the finest families of Thebes. Some of them served as valets or stewards to members of the ruling family. It is not known exactly when Meresamun lived, and so we do not know which royal administration she may have served.
The coffin has never been opened and the mummy has never been unwrapped. In 1989, a preliminary study of the mummy within the coffin was done with x-rays. Three years later, the mummy of Meresamun was examined at the University of Chicago hospitals by CT scans (computed tomography or "CAT").
During that study, the radiologist suggested that, on the basis of her teeth and bones, Meresamun may have been about 30 years old at the time of her death. This was not considered to be an old age for an upper class woman of the period; however we do not know the cause of Meresamun's premature death. Radiologists could also determine that she had, at some point in her life, been injured, for her left jaw (fig.4) and left arm had been fractured. However, those injuries were completely healed at the time of her death. A swelling on her neck may be a goiter or tumor, however this cannot with any certainty be associated with her death. A preliminary study of the CT scans suggest that Meresamun never bore children. This finding is not necessarily associated with her role in the temple bureaucracy, for other Singers in the Interior of the Temple of Amun were known to have born children.
Meresamun was slightly under five feet tall.
The Style of Mummification
During the CT examination, researchers learned much more about the way that Meresamun was mummified. As was normal for mummification during most of Egypt's history, the brain was removed by breaking through the ethmoid sinus behind the nose. No material was introduced into the cranium (fig.2). CT scans show that small objects, perhaps oval stones or pieces of faience, were placed under each eyelid to restore a fuller, lifelike appearance (fig.4).
Meresamun was mummified with her arms extended, her hands crossed over her pubic area. The embalming incision was made on her left abdomen to remove her internal organs (fig.3). A considerable amount of fabric was stuffed into the embalming incision, and packets of some unidentified material were inserted directly into the abdomen. Her fingers and arms were encircled with linen bandages before they were wrapped close to her body. This extra effort and lavish use of wrappings is a sign of a superior mummification process, suggesting that Meresamun came from a family that could devote considerable resources to her funeral arrangements. The heart, which was often left in the chest during mummification because it was considered to be the seat of thought, is not visible on the CT scans. No amulets or jewelry were left within the wrappings.
Written by Emily Teeter, Ph.D. Assistant Curator, The Oriental Institute Museum, University of Chicago, 1995.
Photograph by Jean Grant. CT images and digital radiographs courtesy of the University of Chicago Hospitals.
Suggestions for Further Reading
- Carol Andrews, Egyptian Mummies (Cambridge, 1984).
- James E. Harris and Edward F. Wente, An X-Ray Atlas of the Royal Mummies (Chicago, 1980).
- Richard Wilkinson, Reading Egyptian Art (New York, 1992).
Revised: March 16, 2009